Many moons ago as a novice collector of porcelain, I thought that the phrase “Chinese Export Porcelain” meant to include all items imported from China and primarily copies or imitations of European and American pottery. After reading several articles and books on the subject, and having visited numerous decorative-arts museums and private collections, I came to realize that this term is reserved for a much older line of porcelain wares, made in China, that actually were once the envy and basis of European porcelain makers to imitate, not the other way around.

19th-20th century blue-and-white Canton

Chinese Export Porcelain has attracted the interest of a growing number of collectors on a worldwide basis. Nowadays, auction houses in major cities regularly schedule sales devoted exclusively to Chinese Export Porcelain. Prices vary, depending on age and decorative appeal, provenance and of course, condition, and seem to keep escalating. A notable example: In 1786, George Washington purchased a 302-piece set of Chinese Export Porcelain for $150. In the early-20th century, Chinese export pieces of good quality could still be easily purchased at very reasonable prices.

Chinese exports drop

While Chinese porcelain exporting dates back to the early part of the 16th century, interest went down drastically between the 1850s and the 1900s, a period when imports to various Western countries virtually came to a halt. So much so that a major English authority on porcelain marks, William Chaffers, in his first edition of “Marks and Monograms on European and Oriental Pottery and Porcelain” (1863), erroneously identified this porcelain as having been made at a small factory in Lowestoft, UK. This attribution was made despite the fact that hundreds of thousands of pieces, still existing at the time, had been imported into England for many years prior to 1756 when the little Lowestoft works were established. The factory ceased to exist in 1802.

Chaffers’ erroneous attribution had one unfortunate effect: It was accepted as the gospel truth. Consequently, this pure Chinese porcelain was called Oriental Lowestoft or Chinese Lowestoft for almost 100 years, causing considerable confusion to antiques dealers and collectors alike. Today the term Chinese Export Porcelain is considered an accurate one since the porcelain was made in China, it was made for export, and it is true hard paste. This term has now been adopted by practically all leading international auction houses and galleries.

We have also taken extra steps in our attributions of related marks and items on our Marks4Antiques.com databases. It is important to note that at no time did this porcelain have a generic name in the manner of Bow, Chelsea, Spode or Meissen, which took the name of the factory or town where made. Before Chaffers, Chinese export china was referred to as India Company china in England.

The origins of Chinese porcelain

The manufacture of Chinese porcelain goes back a number of centuries, some experts say as early as 100 B.C. According to most historians, porcelain was made at different locations in China. But it was Emperor Woeng Wu (Ming Dynasty, circa 1368–1398) who selected the town of Ching-te Chen, on the P’oyang River in the province of Kiangsi, to build kilns for the organized manufacture of porcelain, initially destined for the royal palace. Soon afterward, other private factories were established near or around the area, and the town was to become known as “The Porcelain City.”

Ching-te Chen was surrounded with all the necessary elements for making fine porcelain. In the riverbed was an excellent quality of white clay (kaolin); in the hills a good quality of feldspar (petuntse) for the glaze, abundant ferns, the ashes of which were mixed with the petuntse to harden the glaze, and pigments for the porcelain. Also in the hills were coal and wood to fire the kilns. In addition, the location on the P’oyang river gave the town access through a series of waterways and overland trails to major seaports, including Canton, about 400 miles to the southeast.

18th-century vases with famille-rose decoration

Over the years the importance of Ching-te Chen grew substantially. In the 18th century, it is said to have had around 3,000 kilns and a population of a million people. In some ways, the city can be compared with the modern-day auto-manufacturing center of Detroit, Mich. Practically everyone was engaged in some aspect of the porcelain industry. A type of production line was developed in which each individual had one specific task to perform in the manufacture of a single piece, a method first used in the U.S. much later, in the late-19th century.

Export of Chinese porcelain made at Ching-te Chen began fairly early. A steady flow of exports, however, did not begin until the arrival of Portuguese merchants at Canton in 1517. When barred from the ports of Ningho and Chuan, the Portuguese established a trade post at Macao. Since 1557, this coastal city has been their private possession. In 1596 the Dutch reached Bantam, and in 1598 a Dutch fleet of eight ships sailed to trade with the Far East. The British East India Co. was set up in 1599 and established at Bantam in 1620. In 1698 the first French ship traded with the Far East.

In come the Europeans

In 1699, the Emperor Kang Hsi finally opened the port of Canton to foreign trade, and the English established the first hong, or factory, on the banks of Pearl River. The largest number of hongs at any one time was 13. They were two or three stories high with the first floor reserved for business and the storing of merchandise while the second and third floors were used for living quarters for the staff. No women were allowed at the hongs, and this restriction lasted until after the Opium Wars in 1841.

At first, with the Portuguese, Spanish and Dutch merchants, all porcelain exported was of the blue-and-white variety, and the forms were largely of Chinese origin. It wasn’t long, however, before the trading nations began to order forms and shapes that were more appealing to the European taste. The merchants supplied the Chinese potters with wooden models as well as actual European items in silver, pewter, faience, etc., to be copied in porcelain. As early as 1639, records of the Dutch East India Co. show an order for 25,000 items was to be made from wood models supplied by the Dutch.

18th-cenury Fitzhugh tureen

Much Chinese export porcelain survives today in near-perfect condition largely because of the extraordinary number of pieces shipped to the major European countries and, after 1784, directly to America. These literally run into the millions. In America, imports increased sharply after the Revolutionary War and again after the War of 1812. In Europe, however, the volume of trade steadily declined during the 19th century, and virtually came to an end when the town of Ching-te Chen was destroyed and most of the inhabitants slaughtered during the T’aip’ing rebellion in 1853. The town and the kilns were later rebuilt, but it never again attained its prominent position in the manufacture of porcelain.

Porcelain made closer to home

However, the principal cause of the decline in trade is due to the gradual takeover of the porcelain business by English and continental factories. The secrets of Chinese production were mastered, primarily by German and Dutch craftsmen. They were in a good position to satisfy the European and North American customers for two reasons: that of taste and promptness of delivery. Orders taken by the East India companies would generally be two years or longer to fill. English and continental manufacturers either carried the items in stock or could supply them on short notice at competitive prices.

At first, it was not easy for the Europeans to copy the glazes and the colors so expertly developed by the Chinese. Until late-17th century, almost all export porcelain was of the blue-and-white variety. After the kilns at Ching-te Chen were burned down by warring factions in 1675, they were rebuilt by the Emperor K’ang-his, and new colors were developed for decoration, most notably famille verte (green), and porcelain making reached a very high quality. Soon after, other colors such as rouge-de-fer and gold were developed, and the quality of the porcelain reached an even higher level. Later, between the 1730s and the 1750s, the beautiful famille rose colors and decoration were perfected.

19th-century Mandarin export porcelain bowls

At the same time, however, during the height of the trade, ship captains and managers (or super cargoes) were instructed to purchase pieces of heavier quality to reduce breakage in shipping. Concurrent with this change to heavier (and poorer) porcelain, the quality of decoration began its decline. The coarse, heavy porcelain, often with crudely decorated designs, bore little resemblance to that of fine eggshell quality and detailed decoration.

New designs were introduced at the end of this period and during the early part of the 19th century. Among them was the so-called Fitzhugh design in blue, green, orange, brown, mulberry, gold, black, yellow and combinations of colors, and the Rose Medallion design in which a piece is largely covered with large floral medallions in rose, greens and blues.

Mid-19th century, Rose Medallion detail

Other designs introduced at this time include the Mandarin, in which the floral medallions enclose Chinoiserie designs in colors similar to those of Rose Medallion, and a design of overall flowers, birds, and butterflies in shades of orange and brown which today is referred to as the Sacred Bird and Butterfly.

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If you can’t see a mark on a piece of fine pottery or art glass, that doesn’t mean it isn’t there. If your eye is trained to spot quality pieces but you are not able to find a mark, it can be well worth your time to keep on looking for one.

I once visited a very high-end antique store in Los Angles and was rather disappointed when I couldn’t find anything of interest I could buy and later resell for a profit. But, as I was leaving the store, for some reason I looked up at a top shelf where there were two extremely large vases. I asked the dealer if he would get a ladder and bring them down so that I could get a better look at them. Hesitantly, he did.

I examined the vases from top to bottom but couldn’t find a mark, even though I felt fairly certain they were Doulton Lambeth pieces decorated by one of their leading artists. I went over these pieces several more times but still couldn’t find a mark and was considering putting them back on the shelf. Being the stubborn person I am, as all that I refused to give up, so I examined them another time. Finally, I caught a glimpse of three letters within the body of the vase, “FEB” — meaning Florence E. Barlow, the sister of Hannah Barlow. This had just become my lucky day. The two Barlow sisters were Doulton’s best known decorators, and their vases always bring top prices.

Why hadn’t others found these marks? Very simply, the marks weren’t typically where one would find marks on pottery. I’m sure there had been hundreds of people who looked at the bottoms of these pieces and returned them to their shelf when they couldn’t see a mark. You see, ninety-five percent of these vases would have been marked on the bottom. But, not these. And, to make it more difficult, this particular mark, “FEB” had been incorporated into the actual design of the vase, making it almost impossible to find. But, not impossible to a persistant and stubborn person like me. This poor dealer had no idea these vases were special pieces.

I could barely hold my composure when I asked the price. “Two hundred and fifty dollars each,” was the dealer’s response. I didn’t know if it was time to dance or cry.

I returned to my car carrying these two precious bundles and carefully placed them in the back. Then, I pinched myself to be sure I wasn’t dreaming. You see, these wonderful 22″ vases were worth over $5,000 each at the time.

This type of find isn’t a rare occurrence. Lalique, Steuben and other art glass pieces with etched marks often present a huge challenge in finding the marks. The secret is to recognize the quality of the materials and the decorations on the piece. If they both meet the standards of a quality piece, then you should spend the time required to verify the maker.

The next show you attend, find a Tiffany Lamp and ask to look at it. I believe you will find it isn’t easy to located the marks because of their small size and because of where they are located under the shade.

You can learn to spot quality when you make a study of the most sought after pottery, porcelain, and art glass. Knowing the work and values of in demand artists will put you at the head of the class. You’ll be able to find the marks others miss.

Use every source you can in order to study. Search the Internet. See these pieces up close at shows. Invest in your own resource library. Used books can easily be found at reasonable prices through the internet. Choose your area of study.

When you spot that next high quality piece, be persistant in looking for a mark. It can pay you off tenfold.

For more information about marks, visit www.Marks4Antiques.com.

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Royal Vienna and the Beehive Mark: Real or Fake?

By www.Marks4Antiques.com

If you are like me and love fine porcelain, I am sure that my frustration when finding a great piece with the “beehive” mark is all too familiar. Over the years I have seen so many versions and on so many lovely pieces, it is hard to keep those creeping doubts from screaming at you: Fake!! Fake!!

Especially, when coupled with the words ROYAL VIENNA, with or without the beehive mark, it is enough to drive you crazy and swear that you’d never buy another one of those ever! So… I did a lot of research and decided to share what I know in the hopes of keeping at least some people sane…

It turns out that the term Royal Vienna and the “beehive” mark occur frequently on fine porcelain & china pieces, mostly on items of decorative appeal. Yet, in our research, we have often found that there are several meanings attached. To begin with, there is not and never was a company or factory called “Royal Vienna.” Many collectors have used this term to refer to the “Imperial & Royal Porcelain Manufactory” in Vienna, Austria, and in operation circa 1718-1864 only. However, Royal Vienna was not its official name. In addition to their legacy for stunning porcelain artwork and ceramic masterpieces, one other involuntary contribution made to today’s collecting world is their famous “bindenschild” mark meant to represent the Royal Shield, found in the center of the Royal Crest of the Hapsburg Royal Family, who mentored and financed them. This symbol, known as the “beehive” mark in English-speaking countries because of its resemblance to a normal beehive when upside down, is the second most copied or imitated porcelain mark in history after Meissen’s crossed swords.

As mentioned, it is true that some collectors refer to pieces made by the original Imperial & Royal Porcelain Manufactory as “Royal Vienna” and use this term as an abbreviation. However, it should be pointed out that this term is also being used by others to refer to the style of certain items, not necessarily their origin or maker. For example, most classically-themed decorative plates that have a “beehive” mark and made circa 1880s-1940s, are often called “Royal Vienna Plates,” but in this case, when applied correctly, the reference is to their style. Therefore, when someone proclaims a piece to be “Royal Vienna,” the obvious question should be “do you mean from the Imperial & Royal factory period or made later in that style?”

If it is an original Imperial & Royal Manufactory piece, the authentic beehive mark is never symmetrical and always underglaze in blue or impressed [more signs and ways to distinguish these marks are also included in Rontgen’s book]. However, this is exactly where more doubts creep in… There are so many copies and imitations of the beehive mark, it can make your head spin. Not only was this mark forged almost immediately upon the original factory being auctioned off by the King because of financial difficulties, but this mark is also found to be used in several variations even to this day, sometimes by trading companies or importers. A word of caution: many pieces that used a copy or imitation beehive mark are not necessarily of poor quality. In fact, the vast majority of these later Royal Vienna pieces, especially those made circa 1870s–1950s, are of high workmanship and usually command high prices. Most were made at reputable studios and by accomplished artisans, usually in the Bohemian region of Europe, but also in England, France, Italy, etc. Many of these “copy” marks have been well documented and attributed to various makers by ceramics historians in several books and websites.

Some artists and studios of that period include:
• Ackermann & Fritz (Volkstedt, Germany) circa 1908–1951
• Augarten Vienna Porcelain (Vienna, Austria) circa 1922–Present
• C.M. Hutschenreuther (Germany) circa 1880s and again after 1970s
• Carl Knoll (Bohemia) circa 1883–1906
• Carl Thieme (Germany) circa 1903–1930s
• Erdmann Schlegelmilch [E.S. GERMANY] circa 1900–1938
• Josef Kawan (Vienna, Austria) circa 1907–1915
• Kolmar Porcelain (Prussia) circa 1897–1944
• Josef Riedl (Bohemia) circa 1890s–1940s

Most beehive mark copies are fairly easy to tell apart as each specific artisan or studio used a different variation. Although most circa 1870s–1930s marks were applied by hand, so some may vary ever so slightly from item to item, there is usually one or two details that help in attributing them accurately, especially with the help of a book or website— see our www.Marks4Antiques.com

Some of the more recent uses of the beehive mark are applied by stamp, usually in an industrial manner. For example, Arnart Imports (in business circa 1957–2001), which imported fine porcelain & china from Japan and, to a lesser extent, Italy, used a beehive mark. However, Arnart Imports’ mark is documented as being exactly symmetrical, usually in black, and having a tiny vertical line at the very bottom of the beehive and sometimes a dot right above [see photos] and is easy to tell apart from others.

Very recently, and perhaps because Arnart Imports’ items have now gained a good reputation for quality amongst collectors, it appears that several similar marks are now being used by trading companies and other Importers from China and elsewhere. These much newer items are sometimes also of good quality. In case it helps, most of the very recent Chinese beehive marks we have seen tend to be a bit more rounded.

Hopefully the above, along with a book or a website reference—and plenty of experience—can help in guiding you to more splendid treasures of “Royal Vienna.”

A certain misapprehension has always surrounded the subject of silver from Sheffield. Popular belief holds that it is the same as Sheffield plate. This belief is justified up to a point, for there certainly was an interlocking of interests between silver from Sheffield and Sheffield plate, as the story of Sheffield candlesticks shows. But silver hallmarked with the Sheffield town mark of a crown is of Sterling standard (see photos), while the “plate” is just that: a thin layer of silver fused onto copper. Sheffield silver marks examples of all types can also be found in our www.Marks4Antiques.com on the Internet or other references, such as specialized books.

The story of candlesticks, which were hand-raised from sheet metal until casting became universal during the late-17th century, is one of continuing simplification. The change in method of manufacture was one aspect of simplification of process. The base (made in one piece) and the columnar stem and candleholder (made in two) were easy to cast. The whole was skillfully joined together, just as the separate parts of the machine-aided candlesticks were joined when that method was perfected later in Sheffield.

There was nothing really new about casting. But the use of the process made things far easier, so much so that candlesticks dating from about the year 1700 survive in large numbers and evolving styles and in good heavy quality that needed no further strengthening.

Evolution, however, did not confine itself to styles. During that century, inventions to reduce both cost and labor followed one another quickly in England’s Midlands, easing the supply and demand problem created by a newly affluent society that was not yet really rich. Sheffield plating, a process discovered in 1742, was a boon in more ways than one. It not only simulated silver at a fraction of the cost, but it led to the invention of other processes that were also useful in producing the same type of articles in silver at about a third of the price of the old method. Sheffield silver, in fact, owned a great deal to the fused plate industry since it depended on the same processes. In Sheffield, the two trades worked closely together. Although all Sheffield candlesticks were by no means so insubstantial, most were. This explains why most Sheffield candlesticks had to be loaded with a hard or weighty substance, usually marked as “weighted”. As hollowware they could not have stood alone. This is also why they were so easily damaged or dented.

New Steel Dies

Candlesticks were being made in Sheffield before the perfection of Die Stamping in the early 1760s. But with the new steel dies, the necessity for hand finishing ceased. The cutting of a die, in reverse, was a skilled job undertaken only by specialists, and many candlesticks required a dozen or more dies, all cut separately. Nevertheless, the effect was most impressive, for not only the shape but every form of decoration stood out clearly on the metal, as if embossed, chased or otherwise worked by hand by a master. This helped in enhancing decorative features and allowed for an increased detail on the finished candlestick. Mass production is hardly the word that would spring to mind, yet once these parts had been soldered together, a strengthening rod inserted, and the hollow filled with pitch or another hardener, the object was complete. This was a much quicker and more efficient method than before.

Before Sheffield was granted its own Assay Office in 1773, silver from that city was sent to London for marking, where the smart trader snapped up candlesticks to resell as London work at London prices, even though those were always cast. This was so lucrative a practice that London silversmiths continued to overstrike Sheffield makers marks with their own after 1773 and until about 1780. A well-documented example is that of John Carter, known for his fine “London” candlesticks, but we now know that he resorted to this type of trade frequently.

From the start, certain Sheffield firms specialized in candlesticks, including John Winter & Co., who made many graceful sets. This did not prevent other firms from producing very fine sticks in addition to other objects. The whole question of makers, however, is extremely involved. Whereas some partners were concerned solely with sales, many “names” belong to several companies. Confusion for today’s collectors is the natural result. The basic construction of candlesticks was also affected. There were firms who, while assembling no sticks themselves, specialized in the production of parts for sale to others, so that the same base, or stem, or nozzle, stamped out by the thousands, might be used by many small makers, each stamping his own punch.

Again, many of Sheffield’s registered silversmiths were Silver platers first and foremost, and it was in the plating industry that the best designers and die cutters were mostly employed. With dies costing up to $150, an extraordinary amount of money for that time, the best use had to be made of them. With silver doubling the possibilities, it became expedient to form a silver company with a silversmith in partnership. Some of the top makers also belonged to several firms of the same standing, so their names appear in many combinations. This naturally also affected the use of dies whose circulation was not confined to one firm and its subsidiaries. Therefore, many of the same dies might be used by several firms and for both Sheffield plate and silver.

Diversity of Designs

If it were not for the endless possibilities for varying available parts, this would lead to a terrible sameness among Sheffield candlesticks. But when the number of die cutters, firms, designs and parts are considered, this practice still allowed for a huge number of variations of designs and styles to be made. It is true that no one maker’s work was distinctively his. Yet it is possible to fail to recognize the similarity instantly from a row of sticks all set on a base from the same die, so different is the effect.

Styles revived every known form, from Gothic through Rococo to Greek Classical motifs. Nevertheless, it was in the Adam period (circa 1760s–1790s) that Sheffield silversmiths excelled, showing their full powers of original design, aided by the suitability of thin-rolled silver to a style that was so essentially graceful. Other styles could come and go, but Adam candlesticks never ceased to be popular to this day. It was largely these that Victorians and others, using old Sheffield dies, produced as genuine period pieces.

Some pieces are dated, such as many shown in the accompanying photos. Other famous Sheffield silversmiths include John Watson, who produced mostly Rococo styled pieces circa 1816 and stamped accordingly. Others are not. Candlesticks, tapersticks and candelabra, which often had plated branches to save expense, were mostly made in the Adam style from an immense range of designs. Decoration on these, whatever their shape, was elegant to say the least. As heavier, more ornate forms came into fashion, designers adapted as needed. What Sheffield candlesticks lacked in weight of silver was well compensated for by the designers.

Chambersticks, which lost their purpose of lighting people’s way to bed during the 19th century, never attracted these designers to the same degree. Very few attempted more than the gadrooned edge and leaf-capped handle, although a few followed the Adam Neoclassical line. Telescopic candlesticks, however, invented in Sheffield and exclusively made there, are another matter. These were of a utilitarian nature and were intended to throw a constant light, height being adjusted as the candle shortened, so avoiding strain on the eyes when reading, sewing, and so forth. Consequently they were seldom made in silver as table sticks were, and still more rarely in a set of four. Most were of Sheffield plate, designed to extend to varying heights. Some were very small, round and plain, and few are decorated beyond rayed flutes, gadrooned or beaded edges.

These were first made in 1790, but in 1798 when Samuel Roberts patented his machine to produce candlesticks that moved effortlessly to any desired position, they reached their zenith and were made for the next 25 years. Telescopic candelabra were simply an extension of these. According to old invoices, candelabra have a history as old as candlesticks, but it was not until Sheffield makers reduced their costs that they became more common. Even then they were more frequently made in plate, almost universally so in the 19th century with the exception of some notable examples by Storr and a few other makers.

In an 1809 example by John Watson, the candleholder and waxpan were stamped out in one piece, often over 20 inches high, and had remarkable decorative detail. Fenton, Allanson & Co. went even further. The weight of the silver branches on one of their pairs alone came to 136 ounces. Fenton, along with Richard Creswick, was one of the original names in Sheffield.

But such pieces are rare and because of this they are often faked or made up, sometimes using the holder of an old stick, particularly the chamber type, which usually displays the silver marks. The one safeguard against this is correct attribution of these silver markings, with every single detachable part at least partly marked at the same time. This, of course, goes for all sticks. One form of faking is to make a cast from an old pair. Old dies may lose a little sharpness with continued use and age and so the fake mold will have lost the sharpness of the marks, appearing very unclear. But, as they say, for Sheffield makers, “copying is the ultimate form of flattery.”

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Chinese Export Porcelain’s Fascinating Journey from early china

By Lisa Marion of Marks4Antiques

Many moons ago, and as a novice collector of porcelain, I thought that the phrase “Chinese Export Porcelain” meant to include all items imported from China and primarily copies or imitations of European & American pottery. After reading several articles and books on the subject, and having visited numerous decorative arts museums or private collections, I came to realize that this term is reserved for a much older line of porcelain wares, made in China, that actually were once the envy and basis of European porcelain makers to imitate, not the other way around.

Chinese export porcelain has attracted the interest of a growing number of collectors on a worldwide basis. Nowadays, auction houses in major cities around the world regularly schedule sales devoted exclusively to Chinese Export Porcelain. Prices vary, depending on age and decorative appeal, provenance and of course condition, and seem to keep escalating all the time. A notable example, in 1786 George Washington purchased a 302-piece set of Chinese Export Porcelain for $150. In the early 20th century, Chinese export pieces of good quality could still be easily purchased at very reasonable prices.

While Chinese porcelain exporting dates back to the early part of the 16th century, interest went down drastically between 1850s and the 1900s, a period when imports to various western countries virtually came to a halt. So much so was this the case that a major English authority on porcelain marks, William Chaffers, in his first edition of Marks and Monograms on European and Oriental Pottery and Porcelain (1863), erroneously identified this porcelain as having been made at a small factory in Lowestoft, UK. This attribution was made despite the fact that hundreds of thousands of pieces, still existing at the time, had been imported into England for many years prior to 1756 when the little Lowestoft works were established. The factory ceased to exist in 1802.

Chaffers’ erroneous attribution had one unfortunate effect: it was accepted as the gospel truth. Consequently, this pure Chinese porcelain has been called Oriental Lowestoft or Chinese Lowestoft for almost one hundred years, causing considerable confusion to antiques dealers and collectors alike. Today the term Chinese export porcelain is considered an accurate one since the porcelain was made in China, it was made for export, and it is true hard paste. This term has now been adopted by practically all leading international auction houses and galleries. We have also taken extra steps in our attributions of related marks and items on our Marks4Antiques.com databases. It is important to note that at no time did this porcelain have a generic name in the manner of Bow, Chelsea, Spode or Meissen, which took the name of the factory or town where made. Before Chaffers, Chinese Export china was referred to as India Company China in England.

The Origins of Chinese Porcelain
The manufacture of Chinese porcelain goes back a number of centuries, some experts say as early as 100 B.C. According to most historians, porcelain was made at different locations in China. But it was Emperor Woeng Wu (Ming Dynasty ca 1368–1398) who selected the town of Ching-te Chen, on the P’oyang River in the province of Kiangsi, to build kilns for the organized manufacture of porcelain, initially destined for the royal palace. Soon afterwards, other private factories were established near or around the area, and the town was to become known as “The Porcelain City.” Ching-te Chen was surrounded with all the necessary elements for the making of fine porcelain. In the riverbed was an excellent quality of white clay (kaolin); in the hills a good quality of feldspar (petuntse) for the glaze, abundant ferns, the ashes of which were mixed with the petuntse to harden the glaze, and pigments for the porcelain. Also in the hills were coal and wood to fire the kilns. In addition, the location on the P’oyang river, near P’oyang lake, gave the town access through a series of waterways and overland trails to some of the major seaports, including Canton, about four hundred miles to the southeast.

Over the years the importance of Ching-te Chen grew substantially. In the 18th century it is said to have had around 3,000 kilns and a population of a million people. In some ways the city can be compared with the modern-day auto-manufacturing center of Detroit, Mich. Practically everyone was engaged in some aspect of the porcelain industry. A type of production line was developed in which each individual had one specific task to perform in the manufacture of a single piece, a method first used in the U.S. much later, in the late 19th century, and which we now believe sparked our Industrial Revolution.

Export of Chinese Porcelain made at Ching-te Chen began fairly early. A steady flow of exports, however, did not begin until the arrival of Portuguese merchants at Canton in 1517. When barred from the ports of Ningho and Chuan, the Portuguese established a trade post at Macao. Since 1557 this coastal city has been their private possession. In 1596 the Dutch reached Bantam, and in 1598 a Dutch fleet of eight ships sailed to trade with the Far East. The British East India Company was set up in 1599 and established at Bantam in 1620. In 1698 the first French ship traded with the Far East.

In Come the Europeans
In 1699, the Emperor Kang Hsi finally opened the port of Canton to foreign trade and the English established the first hong, or factory, on the banks of Pearl River. They were followed by the French in 1728, the Dutch in 1729, the Danes in 1731, and Swedes in 1732, together with the Austrians, Russians, Indians, Armenians, the Spanish Manila Company, and finally the Americans in 1784. The largest number of hongs at any one time was 13. They were two or three stories high with the first floor reserved for business and the storing of merchandise while the second and third floors were used for living quarters for the staff. No women were allowed at the hongs and this restriction lasted until after the Opium Wars in 1841.

At first, with the Portuguese, Spanish and Dutch merchants, all porcelain exported was of the blue and white variety and the forms were largely of Chinese origin. It wasn’t long, however, before the trading nations began to order forms and shapes that were more appealing to the European taste. The merchants supplied the Chinese potters with wooden models as well as actual European items in silver, pewter, faience, etc., to be copied in porcelain. As early as 1639, records of the Dutch East India Company show an order for 25,000 items was to be made from wood models supplied by the Dutch.

Much Chinese export porcelain survives today in near perfect condition largely because of the extraordinary number of pieces shipped to the major European countries and, after 1784, directly to America. These literally run into the millions. In America, imports increased sharply after the Revolutionary War and again after the War of 1812. In Europe, however, the volume of trade steadily declined during the 19th century, and virtually came to an end when the town of Ching-te Chen was destroyed and most of the inhabitants slaughtered during the T’aip’ing rebellion in 1853. The town and the kilns were later rebuilt, but it never again attained its prominent position in the manufacture of porcelain.

Porcelain Made Closer to Home
However, the principal cause of the decline in the trade is due to the gradual takeover of the porcelain business by English and continental factories. The secrets of Chinese production were mastered, primarily by German and Dutch craftsmen. They were in a good position to satisfy the European and North American customers for two reasons: that of taste and promptness of delivery. Orders taken by the East India companies would generally be two years or longer in filling. English and continental manufacturers either carried the items in stock or could supply them on short notice at competitive prices.

At first, it was not easy for the Europeans to copy the glazes and the colors so expertly developed by the Chinese. Until late 17th century, almost all export porcelain was of the blue and white variety. After the kilns at Ching-te Chen were burned down by warring factions in 1675, they were rebuilt by the Emperor K’ang-hsi and new colors were developed for decoration, most notably famille verte (green), and porcelain making reached a very high quality. Soon after, other colors such as rouge-de-fer and gold were developed and the quality of the porcelain reached an even higher level. Later, between the 1730s and the 1750s, the beautiful famille rose colors and decoration were perfected.

At the same time, however, during the height of the western trade, ship captains and managers (or super cargoes) were instructed to purchase pieces of heavier quality to reduce breakage in shipping. Concurrent with this change to heavier (and poorer) porcelain, the quality of decoration began its decline. The coarse, heavy porcelain, often with crudely decorated designs, bore little resemblance to that of fine egg shell quality and detailed decoration.

New designs were introduced at the end of this period and during the early part of the 19th century. Among them was the so-called Fitzhugh design in blue, green, orange, brown, mulberry, gold, black, yellow and combinations of colors, and the Rose Medallion, design in which a piece is largely covered with large floral medallions in rose, greens, and blues. Other designs introduced at this time include the Mandarin, in which the floral medallions enclose Chinoiserie designs in colors similar to those of Rose Medallion, and a design of overall flowers, birds, and butterflies in shades of orange and brown which today is referred to as the Sacred Bird and Butterfly design.

Mexico’s tradition of magnificent silverwork dates as far back as the 1530s. Mexico has abundant deposits of precious metals, so it was natural that a thriving jewelry and hollowware market would evolve there. But establishing authenticity, purity and age – especially for vintage and antique pieces – can be challenging.

Silver hallmarks stamped on a piece are supposed to signify a certain minimum purity – i.e. .925 and higher – and indicate that taxes and duties had been paid on the materials. Precious metals are linked to the currency reserves in many nations, so it’s imperative that nations keep a running inventory of available resources and an accounting of what’s been used. This process has been followed in Great Britain and France since the 14th century, and hallmarks can be used to accurately date silver pieces from there. However, these standards have not been strictly enforced in Mexico – or in the U.S. for that matter.

Since the 16th Century, this duty mark has been the image of the Mexican eagle. It often was referred to as “El Quinto Real,” or the one-fifth of the value of the silver used in the piece that was paid as taxes.

During the first half of the 20th century, the eagle disappeared. Mexican silver was generically marked with a SILVER or STERLING stamp.

The use of a newly-designed Mexican Eagle silver mark with outstretched wings appeared in 1948. It was meant to strictly represent a minimum of .925 silver content, but this was not always enforced. It also was used in association with specific numbers to indicate a manufacturer. There are numerous lists available online and in reference books to help you trace specific makers.

From 1955-80, the shape of the Mexican Eagle silver mark became more abstract, almost triangular. (See photo.) These marks were also assigned a specific number corresponding to a maker or the location.

Since 1980, the official notation is a registration code. The first letter denotes the location, the second denotes the workshop and the number denotes the actual silversmith. For example, MT-01 would indicate Mexico City, Tane (a famous workshop) and the person who registered it. Many studios also stamp a separate trademark or logo to help establish authenticity.

Alex and Elizabeth are WorthPoint Worthologists.

Identifying porcelain is more than just “reading” a mark. It involves careful consideration of many elements to confirm correct age and authenticity.

There are thousands of Porcelain marks and even experienced collectors and antiques dealers can have difficulty in determining whether an item is new, and avoid costly mistakes.

There has been a huge influx of porcelain items recently – mostly figurines and other decorative porcelain objects. Many are high quality and may be better for decorative purposes, but they are not antique. The vast majority of these products come from China, or Asia generally. Some have stickers or labels and many are marked with what appear to be older European or American marks and do not carry a country of origin mark. However, many of the new marks are so similar to authentic antique marks that distinguishing them requires a more detailed look.

Luckily, there are some additional ways to recognize most forged or imitation porcelain marks. Here are some tips:

• Examine the mark around the edges using a magnifying lens. If the mark appears too perfect and applied using an industrial machine, then the mark probably is recent. Most items made prior to 1950 had their marks applied by hand, so these stamps would wear out over time, or the firmness with which they were applied varied from worker to worker. Older porcelain marks are not as clear or sharp at the edges.

• Recent porcelain marks are close imitations of older authentic marks used by Meissen, Sevres, Chantilly, English Staffordshire Potteries (usually Coats of Arms or Crests), Gardner, etc… They almost always differ in one or two minor details from the old marks, such as the endings do not curl the same or have symbols that are obscure or out of scale. Although some older authentic antique marks were applied in free-hand style using an artist’s thin brush, the difference is still apparent once you have seen several examples of the original mark.

• Modern imitation porcelain marks often intentionally misspell words, such as “SEVRE” instead of “SEVRES” or “STAFORDSHIRE” instead of “STAFFORDHIRE.” Compare the name you read with the authentic one by running a quick search on Google or eBay.

• Typically, newer porcelain marks are larger than the originals. Older porcelain marks rarely exceed 1 – 1.5 inches.

• Because “china” also refers to dinnerware (as in “chinaware”), many newer porcelain marks include the word CHINA in the mark. For example, “IRONSTONE CHINA” helps to comply with the country of origin laws but also confuses a collector in thinking that this is part of the original company name. Many marks of older potteries included the word CHINA as part of their trademark.

• The universal symbol for “copyright” usually is the letter C enclosed in a circle. This did not exist before the 20th century. If a mark looks similar to an older or antique porcelain mark and also has this copyright symbol, it is a new imitation mark.

• Although there were a handful of companies that used the words VICTORIA” or “VICTORIAN” within their logo or as a name of a pattern, the words often are used in newer, imitation porcelain marks.

• Items made for export to the U.S. after 1891 must declare the country of origin. Older items usually include the country of origin as part of their overall trademark, or the name of the country – “Germany” or “England”, “France” etc.. – appears near the actual maker’s porcelain mark. Many recent Asian imports bypass this legal requirement by using a sticker or label, which is often removed or lost.

• Most antique porcelain shows tiny cracks in the glaze called “crazing,” especially on Earthenware or old glazed Chinaware that has been used extensively. New pieces exhibit similar crazing, but the lines appear very bright and white, indicating artificial stress during firing to create this effect.

Other reliable signs of age include:

1. Older molds tend to be “tighter” with almost no seams,
2. The “blow hole,” or the tiny opening that allows air to escape from within a piece while in the kiln usually is rough and hand-pierced on antique pieces.
3. The base or foot rim of older pieces show wear and tear, feel somewhat rough to the touch or are slightly discolored.
4. Older pieces used softer, gentler colors and are not too bright. Newer pieces tend to be very “intense.”
5. The “whiteness” of older porcelain is even and bright. Recent pieces tend to appear slightly gray or bluish.

Alex and Elizabeth are WorthPoint Worthologists.

The broad term “ceramics” usually refers to items made of fired clay. Ceramics are further divided in several categories, the primary ones being Earthenware, Stoneware and Porcelain. The main differences in these three are the temperatures at which they are fired in the kiln and the specific composition of their component materials.

Although the term Pottery is properly defined the same as the all-inclusive word Ceramics, nowadays it is used to refer mostly to Earthenware and Stoneware only (also known as Clayware), and leaves the term Porcelain as a separate category. This article will focus on the various types of Porcelain.

TRUE PORCELAIN (a.k.a. HARD-PASTE PORCELAIN): A high-fired Ceramic ware that exhibits translucent properties and is composed of White Clay (Kaolin) and a type of Feldspathic rock (Petunse). Kaolin is refractory and binds a piece together while in the kiln. Petunse fuses into a natural kind of glass that gives it its smoothness and brilliance. True or hard paste porcelain usually is fired at 1450 ° C. It allows for “tighter” modeling and more robust shapes, even in delicate or very thin designs. Most decorative porcelain figurines, urns, centerpieces, etc… are made using true or hard paste porcelain. This is the same type of porcelain invented at Meissen and was the first close recreation of porcelain coming from China at the time. In France, the term for hard paste is Pâte Dure, and in Sevres specifically Porcelaine Royale. Hard (or high) Fired translates to Grand Feu in French.

ARTIFICIAL PORCELAIN (a.k.a. SOFT-PASTE PORCELAIN): Termed ‘soft’ because of its ability to be cut with a file (hard paste porcelain cannot), this type of porcelain is composed of the same materials as hard paste, but is fired at a softer temperature, around 1200 ° C. Because of this lower temperature, soft paste porcelain tends to be more granular and porous since the component materials do not vitrify (fuse) as is the case of hard paste porcelain. Additionally, the surface is somewhat less white or brilliant and has an almost silky or marble-like feel to the touch. Some collectors prefer this look, especially on human figurines, where it allows for a softer texture and a more life-like appearance. Historically, soft paste porcelain was first made in Italy in late-16th century (Medici Porcelain), but it reached prominence in mid-17th century France. In the United Kingdom, the first factory to make soft paste porcelain was Chelsea (ca 1743). It is also known as Frit Porcelain in England, and Porcelaine de France or Pâte Tendre in France.

BONE CHINA: This is the same as hard paste porcelain, but with added bone ash (ashes from burned animal bones, mostly cattle). Bone ash contains lime and phosphoric acid, which helps fuse all of the ingredients and allows for a more stable final product, even at the lower temperatures required for soft paste porcelain. In a manufacturing setting, this means less damage due to cracking in the kiln and less waste or rejects, thus less cost. In Decorative Arts terms, it means that an object with at least 30 percent bone ash can achieve a brilliance and translucence typically seen on hard paste porcelain, but at the lower costs associated with producing soft paste. Bone China was introduced at the Bow factory in England in 1750 and was quickly imitated by Chelsea (1755) and Lowestoft and Derby (ca 1770). It rarely is produced in other European countries or the US and it is also is known as English China.

Other than a true scientific analysis performed at a Lab, a quick and practical way to confirm if an item is made of a particular type of porcelain is to examine an exposed or broken piece to determine how porous or granular its interior body appears. As a quick rule of thumb, granularity means soft paste, whereas a compact and fused interior means hard paste. Bone china is more brilliant than soft paste, but less so than hard paste. Also, hard paste porcelain is the most durable of the three types, with bone china coming second and soft paste third.

Finally, some other terms used for Porcelain include:

Soaprock, or soapstone porcelain, uses soaprock, a soft steatite mineral that feels like soap, also called French Chalk.

Biscuit (also called Bisque) is an unglazed porcelain (of all types) or an Earthenware which has been fired only once. It has a distinct marble-like appearance, also called Parian ware, and is used mostly for modeling or busts.

Alex and Elizabeth are WorthPoint Worthologists.

Faience pottery, also known as Fayence in France, is often used as a synonym to Majolica because of their similar appearance and use of tin glaze. Yet, most collectors distinguish Faience pottery by their characteristic polychrome (multi-colored) designs and mostly white background, whereas Majolica tends to have decoration all over along with pronounced raised decorative details (relief).

Although the earliest specimens date all the way back to 1200 BC in Greece, most Faience items found in the antiques market or many museums today are made circa 16th century onwards, and primarily in Italy, France, Holland and England. The most desired of Faience pottery originates from France, such as the Quimper, Ruen, Luneville regions, or from Italy near Turin or Savona and Florence. Of course, as with most other popular pottery or porcelain, some Faience pieces now also come from China and other Asian economies, and in spite of their decorative appeal, these are not antique.

Most antique Faience pottery was of a quasi-utilitarian nature, like jugs or plates, but with a distinct aesthetic flair. Vases and other decorative ware were also made in those older days, but many tend to be of rather regular shapes. Designs tend to be floral or geometric in nature, and some have simple depictions of pastoral scenes with one or two persons carrying farm duties.

The vast majority of antique Faience was made in small studios or by individual artists. These early pieces were signed with the artist’s initials or monogram, along with a symbol or the full name of their location. Hence, QUIMPER or other names of regions where Faience pottery was made do not reflect any actual manufacturer or maker, but rather a number of art studios or artists that worked in the area. Much later, around very-late-18th century onwards, some studios were much larger or became collectives, and some marks and signatures from that period are linked to a specific company, as in the case of the HENRIOT factory in Quimper, France.

Old Faience is very popular nowadays and can fetch high prices at auction. Because early examples were made of earthenware and, as noted above, were of utilitarian nature, many show clear signs of distress and wear such chips or cracks. However, this is to be expected and in most cases it does not detract from their value. In fact, some collectors believe it adds character to a Faience piece. This is unlike what you would expect on a Meissen porcelain figurine or a pair of Sevres urns that are usually more valuable if in perfect condition, even though they date from a similar period, since the latter were meant to be used for display only.

Please see “My Collections” for some examples. The above is by no means an exhaustive account on Faience pottery, but rather a starting point for an interesting discussion. Please feel free to contribute your own experiences with Faience to this blog.

Alex and Elizabeth are WorthPoint Worthologists.

In general, the term Sterling Silver is meant to distinguish items that are composed of mostly solid silver as opposed to Silver-Plated that have only a thin surface layer of silver. However, there are several other distinctions, some using terms that can be confusing and often lead to a misunderstanding of an item’s composition and hence its value.

One of the most important metallurgical terms that are also used in Antique and Modern Silver are the words ALLOY and PLATED. Alloy refers to a composite metal that consists of two or more distinct pure metals that are fused together so as to make them inseparable by mechanical means. Plated on the other hand, refers to metals that have a layer deposited and adhered to a Base Metal to give it the appearance that the entire item is made of the same material used in its Plating. The base metal for most antique Silver items in today’s market is usually Copper, Nickel Silver, Stainless Steel, Brass, or Bronze.

Sterling Silver is actually an Alloy. Because silver is soft in its purest form, Silversmiths mix silver with copper to make it harder and more durable. Additionally, copper gives the resulting alloy a nicer sheen and is more appealing. This is how the Fineness Hallmarks used on silver have come to have meaning and each country considers certain levels as minimum standards (some changed over time) and are usually enforced when on Jewelry and other Silver items. For example, in the United States the first legal Sterling Silver standard was introduced by Charles Tiffany in 1852 and was soon adopted by the US Federal Government as 0.921 parts of Silver and 0.079 parts of Copper. In the United Kingdom, the Sterling Standard was established much earlier, in 1238 (enforced after 1300), and refers to a minimum of 0.925 parts of Silver and 0.075 parts of Copper. Items made of at least 99% pure silver are usually referred to as Fine Silver. In America, Coin Silver refers to a minimum of 90% silver content.

It is interesting to note that, in spite of its name, Nickel Silver does NOT contain any silver. It is actually an alloy of copper, nickel and zinc in varying proportions, usually 2:1:1 or 3:1:1. It is similar to the Chinese “Paktong” as imported to Europe prior to the 19^th century and until Nickel was more readily available from various Colonies. In the west, it was developed first in Saxe-Meiningen, Germany, in 1824, hence its other name as German Silver. Since then, Nickel Silver is used extensively as a Base Metal on Silver-Plated items hence the common abbreviation EPNS (Electro Plated Nickel Silver) or EPGS (Electro Plated German Silver).

Which brings us to Silver Plating…

A very successful method of Silver Plating was Sheffield Plate, which although already known since antiquity, was formally patented for industrial use by Thomas Bolsover of Sheffield in 1742. The initial name for this method was Copper Rolled Plate, which refers to the basic technique employed at the time of rolling a layer of Silver onto a layer of Copper, sometimes on both sides. This produced a very compact and large silver sheet, usually rolled in ingots, that was still thin enough to be malleable for the Silversmith when forming intricate designs. The term Sheffield Plate became popular ca 1770s and was later referred to as Old Sheffield Plate to distinguish it from other methods developed after 1830s. Initially, the majority of Sheffield plated items had the base metal covered on the external side only (Single Plated) whereas the other side was covered with Tin. However, market demand for Double Plated items, especially on hollowware was soon evident and most specimens surviving today as Antique Sheffield Plate are double plated.

Because of repeated increases of taxation on Solid or Sterling Silver during the period between 1784 to 1815, other promising methods of Silver Plating were soon developed that were less expensive and easier to replicate in industrial quantities. Most of these techniques employed the use of fine and very thin layers of Silver, sometimes referred to as Silver Leaf, that were pressed against the base metal 3-5 layers at a time and then heated and burnished to a smooth finish. Since it took a total of 40 or 60 Silver Leaf layers to get each item ready, this method was still laborious and expensive. This method is now known as French Plating because it was mostly popular amongst French platers during the 18thC. Other similar forms of Silver Plating were also developed around the same time, including Roberts Plate ca 1830, British Plate ca 1835, and Merry Plate in 1936.

However, the most important change in Silver Plating came about with the invention of Electro Plating, a method that simply requires placing the item to be plated along with a small ingot of solid silver in a bath of mild acid and applying electric current. This set-up enabled an evenly uniform deposit of solid silver on the plated item, and varying the current and time during the process, allowed for very precise control in the thickness of the plated silver. Electro Plating was first discovered by John Wright of Birmingham in 1840, but was officially patented by Elkington & Co. around the same time. It has since been in extensive use and has remained the dominant way of Plating Silver to this day. Most Electro-Plated wares have a plating thickness of about 3-30 microns; Flashed or Silver-Wash wares have less then 3 microns.

Silver plated items were not required to have hallmarks by law. However, many companies used their own logos and often included the type of Plating that was used on each piece, usually as initials EPS, EPNS etc. This practice eventually became the norm and now most Silver-Plated items found in the market are marked with their respective maker’s trademarks. Unfortunately, some companies intentionally used marks that were very similar to true Sterling Silver Hallmarks in order to gain market acceptance at the time, but this was only during a very brief early period since authorities and other merchants whose marks were imitated, prosecuted this use.

Finally some other terms related to Silver include:

Standard Silver Plate: The equivalent of using 2 troy ounces of Pure Silver for every 144 Silver spoons being ElectroPlated.

Quadruple Plate: The use of 4 times the Standard electroplating amount of Pure Silver, i.e. 8 oz for every 144 silver spoons

Britannia Silver: A Sterling Silver alloy of 0.9584 Pure Silver Fineness

90g or 90G or G90 or 90 or Hard Plating: Refers to Elctro-Plating of over 30 microns thickness; found mostly on German Cutlery & Utilitarian Flatware ca 1920s onwards.

Alex and Elizabeth are WorthPoint Worthologists.

The tradition of making Jugs, Pitchers or Mugs in the shape of human figures or faces has its origins in 18thC England. Character Jugs were also made in the Delft region of Holland for a short time, but most known examples were produced by Potteries located in the Staffordshire region of the UK.

Although the most prolific company that made Character Jugs or Toby Mugs, is Royal Doulton, the very first Toby Mugs were made by Ralph Wood I and later by his son Ralph Wood II during the 1748 – 1798 period. The name “Toby” Mug or Jug was inspired by a character named Toby Philpot in a 1761 English folk song titled “The Brown Jug”. The first English Toby Mugs were after the characters of John Barleycorn, a Whiskey Topper, and “Old Charley”, a night watchman.

Charles Noke is regarded as one of the earliest modelers of this Art form, who influenced many later designs that are largely based on his technique and style. Famous Toby Mugs or Jugs designers include Leslie Harradine, Harry Fenton, David Brian Biggs, Max Henk and several others.

Older Character Jugs and Toby Mugs are usually made of Earthenware, using a Mold. The molds are made once a design is composed using soft Clay, and the final product is fired several times in the Kiln and after several applications of color and other decorative features or adjustments. Toby Mugs and Character Jugs are still designed and manufactured today in the same way as before, but many are now made using Fine China and have a more translucent appearance.

In addition to Royal Doulton, companies known to make Toby Mugs and Character jugs include: Beswick, Burleigh Ware, Burlington, Crown Devon, Kevin Francis, Melba Ware, Roy Kirkham, Shaw, Shorter, Sterling, Sylvan, Wood & Sons, Wade, Wedgwood and others. In our personal experience, we have also received porcelain marks to identify through our Marks4Antiques.com service that are stamped on Toby Mugs that have clearly originated from modern-day China, so recent Asian reproductions exist and are making their way into the secondary market fast.

Sizes varied over time, most common height is 5″ – 7″ with 3″ – 4″ being less popular. Some miniature Toby Mugs measuring 1 ¼” – 2 ½” were also made but none known after 1960.

Practically all Character Jugs or Toby Mugs are marked appropriately by the company that made them, often also adding a Model or Size Number notation. Most are also marked with the Character they represent, usually of men and less often women. In addition to whimsical characters and themes, many Toby Mugs depict famous folk or historical personalities, some American. Many characters found in Fiction books are also represented, for example as inspired by stories by Charles Dickens.

Several designs have been re-issued numerous times and, especially for Royal Doulton, the Model Number is often accompanied by the letter “D” for “Design”. Therefore, you can expect to find Toby Mugs of the same exact design that may have different “D” numbers, which indicates different manufacturing periods. A letter “A” is also known to occur frequently, usually incised or impressed, primarily on designs from the ca 1930s – 1960s years, which according to most experts is an internal manufacturing code such as a particular Kiln designation. Spellings of Characters as noted on the actual Jugs are known to vary somewhat, depending on whether a Toby Mug was destined for the domestic UK market or for export to the US and Australia. For example, “Old Charley” is also known as “Old Charlie”, “Sancho Panza” as “Sancho Panca” etc.

Character Jugs and Toby Mugs have remained to be popular Collectibles and usually fetch good money at auction. Prices range from $30 to $150 for most specimens, but some rarer designs reach upwards of $600, even for models as recent as ca 1940s – 1960s. Newer Asian reproductions are of fine decorative appeal and usually sell for $20 – $50.