“Of a strong build, suitable for export and of good material, with a clear white body often left unglazed on a flat base. The glaze is thick and rather bubbly, and the blue is of a bright violet tone.”

— R.L. Hobson,author and Chinese Ceramics Specialist, British Museum, 1915.

A stoneware water pot with underglaze blue splashes, Tang Dynasty (618-907).

The technique of painting a color under a glaze first developed during the Tang Dynasty (618-907), when celadon enjoyed great popularity. (The Song also delved into some aspects of underglaze porcelain). Although this new decorative style was initially considered vulgar and unworthy of the educated, underglaze painting evolved and matured. The most important period is the Yuan, due to scarcity. Considering the difficulty with firing, some beautiful pieces were produced but few pieces come on to the market.

In simple terms, the unfired porcelain is left to become dry enough to handle, then painted in under glaze cobalt blue (or copper red or iron black). The items are put aside so the paint can dry, and then dipped in or brushed with glaze prior to firing in the kiln. This basic method has been refined over time, as potters sought to remedy the many flaws that spoiled early production. Ironically, those telltale flaws characteristic to one or another period, are of most help in dating Chinese porcelain.

The development of underglaze blue to decorate white porcelain began on a regular basis and with great skill at Jingdezhen in the Yuan period, and was perfected during the Ming Dynasty. Until the Ming, the blue pigment—called cobalt—was imported exclusively from Persia (present day Iran, where the color Mohammedan blue come from) but fortunately a native cobalt was discovered in the early part of the Ming era.

A Ming Dynasty celestial globe vase with dragon and floral design from the Yung-lo reign (1403-24).

Within this important era, blue and white porcelain underwent several variations in manufacture. The most vital innovation relates to the modulation in the blue pigment, which can range from a grayish, washed-out blue to blue-black to a brilliant blue. Other variations are the individual glazes, the variety of shapes, the style of decoration, and the calligraphy of the Imperial reign marks.

The dating of early blue and white Chinese porcelain made some headway when Oxford research scientists discovered that the Persian cobalt has no manganese, yet the Chinese cobalt contained a high proportion of manganese oxide. In effect, blue and white wares containing traces of manganese cannot be earlier than Ming. As no blue and white piece can be genuinely attributed to the reign of Hongwu, the first Ming emperor (1368-1398), most pieces are classed as “early 15th century.”

Under the Ming ruler Yongle (1403-24) production of blue and white porcelain flourished, and under his Imperial patronage, a wide range of archaistic floral, fruit and vine motifs and styles ensued, including an occasional Islamic decoration. This period is artistically rich, maintaining the devotion to floral emblems and their significance which had prevailed from early ages in China. In particular, the lotus, chrysanthemum and peony were most popular, used with foliate or geometric borders or rim decoration. Later reproductions of Yongle wares are difficult to distinguish from originals except under expert scrutiny. Reign marks are rarely found on Imperial pieces until the Xuande- era.

Yongle characteristics include good, sturdy shapes and curved bodies, with attractive and restrained decoration. If it is a double-sided piece, the decoration is usually similar on both sides. The color is intense violet blue with numerous small dark flecks, and the glaze is very soft and smooth but with the “orange peel” effect of small brown flecks caused by iron impurities.

The classic period in the development of blue and white Oriental porcelain is considered to be the Xuande reign (1426-35), when the marking of ceramics became established practice and a number of innovations occurred. The variety of shapes expanded to include not only dishes but bowls, wine cups, ewers, flasks, vases, lidded boxes and jars, and utensils for Buddhist ceremonial offerings—all richly decorated in the typical blue-black pigment associated with early Ming wares. The glaze has a thick texture, little light reflection and fewer impurities. With the change to the native cobalt, the blue alters to a more subdued color than at the beginning of the century.

An exciting range of shapes and forms came from the Xuande era, which is characterized by a bluish white glaze (usually more uniform than on past porcelain). Minute flecks still occur but are less visible, and the flower scroll decoration is more conventional in style than at beginning of century. Representations of Taoist symbol (mythical characters), the Eight Precious Objects, the Three Friends (pine, prunus, bamboo), phoenix and sacred fungus, among other subjects, are prevalent. The dragon is always vigorously painted, spreading his tail and claws very dramatically against a plain white ground.

After Xuande there was a 20-year interregnum as the successive three emperors appear to have had no interest in ceramics—no more than a few pieces bearing a reign mark from the mid-century. It was to be redressed by Chenghua (1465-87), who revitalized blue and white. Technically, Chenghua pieces are superior, although the former decoration was somewhat curbed due to the taste of the Emperor who followed the dictates of his concubine Wan, and eunuchs.

A Ming Dynasty underglaze blue bowl from the Chenghua period.

Chenghua decoration lacks vitality, but has a greater sophistication and effeminacy. The designs become more naturalistic as flowers become swirling wreaths with leafy tendrils, and these designs are sometimes painted on the inside of pieces. There is a new artistic direction as scenes of children or comic figures appear, greatly contrasting with the rest of the decoration; these pieces bear no marks.

Repeated shapes are characteristic of Chenghua pieces, although fragile flared bowls called “palace bowls” are also a characteristic product. Reign marks (nienhao) in two vertical rows are written within a circle or rectangle.

The Hongzhi ruler (1488-1505) continues the wares of previous reigns, with the same classical themes but a less lively depiction. The blue is grayish and varied, with the six characters written under the base in two ways; the characters are small and unevenly spaced, or written larger and in a regular form. Some unmarked bowls decorated with children’s games appear in this period.

The classical period of blue and white Oriental porcelain concludes with the Zhengde ruler (1506-21), when examples range from superb to mediocre. Some later pieces reflect an Islamic innovation, as Arabic or Persian script and quotations from the Koran are used. At the time, Muslim eunuchs and a number of Muslim communities within China held sway at court, and it is thought their influence was reflected in this new decoration. It is seen on small pieces such as writing utensils, candlesticks, vases and screens. Such pieces always have the dynastic mark written in six characters.

A Jiajing period Ming Dynasty square dish.

In the Jiajing reign—from 1522 to 1566—blue and white porcelain was characterized by a brilliant rich blue, and decorations of Taoist symbols such as the Eight Immortals or the shou dominate. In everyday pieces we see children’s games, dragons, phoenixes and floral motifs depicted.

Due to economic conditions, Jingdezhen was forced to reduce its output during the Longqmg reign (1567-72). Lan Pu describes it thus: “The clay is adhesive and rich. The body partly thick, partly thin. The technique of manufacture is excellent …. the glaze is lustrous, thick like a layer of fat.”

Blue and white wares produced in the Wanli reign (1573-1620) are characterized by a fine body, a brilliant glaze and deep violet-blue decoration¬—although such pieces are rare. The shapes become a little different from earlier forms, and a return to archaistic shapes signals a decline in creativity. There are repeating themes of dragons, Eight Precious Objects, etc., but also a more vital depiction of figures in everyday life. Delicate pieces such as stem cups and incense burners attributed to Wanli are seen bearing the marks of Xuande or Chenghua.

The popularity of blue and white Oriental porcelain was supported by the burgeoning export industry, which widely transported its wares. Products were mainly Chinese, but vast orders from foreign countries were generally fashioned for the foreign tastes and designs of countries in Europe, the Near East and Japan.

Chinese reign marks did not become established practice for marking ceramics until the Xuande reign (1426-35). The six characters are precisely written, placed either under the base in two vertical lines or near the outer rim in a single horizontal line. The top two characters are the emperor’s second name (left) and the character for “great” (right).

The middle characters name the dynasty, and the lower two characters are “made in the reign of …” and the emperor’s first name. It is not accurate to date Chinese porcelain using reign marks. While no doubt some deliberately meant to deceive’ usually it was a simple case of tribute—some potters who admired a previous golden age are known to have reused those marks as a form those marks as a form of respect

— by R.L. Hobson

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Chinese Export Porcelain’s Fascinating Journey from early china

By Lisa Marion of Marks4Antiques

Many moons ago, and as a novice collector of porcelain, I thought that the phrase “Chinese Export Porcelain” meant to include all items imported from China and primarily copies or imitations of European & American pottery. After reading several articles and books on the subject, and having visited numerous decorative arts museums or private collections, I came to realize that this term is reserved for a much older line of porcelain wares, made in China, that actually were once the envy and basis of European porcelain makers to imitate, not the other way around.

Chinese export porcelain has attracted the interest of a growing number of collectors on a worldwide basis. Nowadays, auction houses in major cities around the world regularly schedule sales devoted exclusively to Chinese Export Porcelain. Prices vary, depending on age and decorative appeal, provenance and of course condition, and seem to keep escalating all the time. A notable example, in 1786 George Washington purchased a 302-piece set of Chinese Export Porcelain for $150. In the early 20th century, Chinese export pieces of good quality could still be easily purchased at very reasonable prices.

While Chinese porcelain exporting dates back to the early part of the 16th century, interest went down drastically between 1850s and the 1900s, a period when imports to various western countries virtually came to a halt. So much so was this the case that a major English authority on porcelain marks, William Chaffers, in his first edition of Marks and Monograms on European and Oriental Pottery and Porcelain (1863), erroneously identified this porcelain as having been made at a small factory in Lowestoft, UK. This attribution was made despite the fact that hundreds of thousands of pieces, still existing at the time, had been imported into England for many years prior to 1756 when the little Lowestoft works were established. The factory ceased to exist in 1802.

Chaffers’ erroneous attribution had one unfortunate effect: it was accepted as the gospel truth. Consequently, this pure Chinese porcelain has been called Oriental Lowestoft or Chinese Lowestoft for almost one hundred years, causing considerable confusion to antiques dealers and collectors alike. Today the term Chinese export porcelain is considered an accurate one since the porcelain was made in China, it was made for export, and it is true hard paste. This term has now been adopted by practically all leading international auction houses and galleries. We have also taken extra steps in our attributions of related marks and items on our Marks4Antiques.com databases. It is important to note that at no time did this porcelain have a generic name in the manner of Bow, Chelsea, Spode or Meissen, which took the name of the factory or town where made. Before Chaffers, Chinese Export china was referred to as India Company China in England.

The Origins of Chinese Porcelain
The manufacture of Chinese porcelain goes back a number of centuries, some experts say as early as 100 B.C. According to most historians, porcelain was made at different locations in China. But it was Emperor Woeng Wu (Ming Dynasty ca 1368–1398) who selected the town of Ching-te Chen, on the P’oyang River in the province of Kiangsi, to build kilns for the organized manufacture of porcelain, initially destined for the royal palace. Soon afterwards, other private factories were established near or around the area, and the town was to become known as “The Porcelain City.” Ching-te Chen was surrounded with all the necessary elements for the making of fine porcelain. In the riverbed was an excellent quality of white clay (kaolin); in the hills a good quality of feldspar (petuntse) for the glaze, abundant ferns, the ashes of which were mixed with the petuntse to harden the glaze, and pigments for the porcelain. Also in the hills were coal and wood to fire the kilns. In addition, the location on the P’oyang river, near P’oyang lake, gave the town access through a series of waterways and overland trails to some of the major seaports, including Canton, about four hundred miles to the southeast.

Over the years the importance of Ching-te Chen grew substantially. In the 18th century it is said to have had around 3,000 kilns and a population of a million people. In some ways the city can be compared with the modern-day auto-manufacturing center of Detroit, Mich. Practically everyone was engaged in some aspect of the porcelain industry. A type of production line was developed in which each individual had one specific task to perform in the manufacture of a single piece, a method first used in the U.S. much later, in the late 19th century, and which we now believe sparked our Industrial Revolution.

Export of Chinese Porcelain made at Ching-te Chen began fairly early. A steady flow of exports, however, did not begin until the arrival of Portuguese merchants at Canton in 1517. When barred from the ports of Ningho and Chuan, the Portuguese established a trade post at Macao. Since 1557 this coastal city has been their private possession. In 1596 the Dutch reached Bantam, and in 1598 a Dutch fleet of eight ships sailed to trade with the Far East. The British East India Company was set up in 1599 and established at Bantam in 1620. In 1698 the first French ship traded with the Far East.

In Come the Europeans
In 1699, the Emperor Kang Hsi finally opened the port of Canton to foreign trade and the English established the first hong, or factory, on the banks of Pearl River. They were followed by the French in 1728, the Dutch in 1729, the Danes in 1731, and Swedes in 1732, together with the Austrians, Russians, Indians, Armenians, the Spanish Manila Company, and finally the Americans in 1784. The largest number of hongs at any one time was 13. They were two or three stories high with the first floor reserved for business and the storing of merchandise while the second and third floors were used for living quarters for the staff. No women were allowed at the hongs and this restriction lasted until after the Opium Wars in 1841.

At first, with the Portuguese, Spanish and Dutch merchants, all porcelain exported was of the blue and white variety and the forms were largely of Chinese origin. It wasn’t long, however, before the trading nations began to order forms and shapes that were more appealing to the European taste. The merchants supplied the Chinese potters with wooden models as well as actual European items in silver, pewter, faience, etc., to be copied in porcelain. As early as 1639, records of the Dutch East India Company show an order for 25,000 items was to be made from wood models supplied by the Dutch.

Much Chinese export porcelain survives today in near perfect condition largely because of the extraordinary number of pieces shipped to the major European countries and, after 1784, directly to America. These literally run into the millions. In America, imports increased sharply after the Revolutionary War and again after the War of 1812. In Europe, however, the volume of trade steadily declined during the 19th century, and virtually came to an end when the town of Ching-te Chen was destroyed and most of the inhabitants slaughtered during the T’aip’ing rebellion in 1853. The town and the kilns were later rebuilt, but it never again attained its prominent position in the manufacture of porcelain.

Porcelain Made Closer to Home
However, the principal cause of the decline in the trade is due to the gradual takeover of the porcelain business by English and continental factories. The secrets of Chinese production were mastered, primarily by German and Dutch craftsmen. They were in a good position to satisfy the European and North American customers for two reasons: that of taste and promptness of delivery. Orders taken by the East India companies would generally be two years or longer in filling. English and continental manufacturers either carried the items in stock or could supply them on short notice at competitive prices.

At first, it was not easy for the Europeans to copy the glazes and the colors so expertly developed by the Chinese. Until late 17th century, almost all export porcelain was of the blue and white variety. After the kilns at Ching-te Chen were burned down by warring factions in 1675, they were rebuilt by the Emperor K’ang-hsi and new colors were developed for decoration, most notably famille verte (green), and porcelain making reached a very high quality. Soon after, other colors such as rouge-de-fer and gold were developed and the quality of the porcelain reached an even higher level. Later, between the 1730s and the 1750s, the beautiful famille rose colors and decoration were perfected.

At the same time, however, during the height of the western trade, ship captains and managers (or super cargoes) were instructed to purchase pieces of heavier quality to reduce breakage in shipping. Concurrent with this change to heavier (and poorer) porcelain, the quality of decoration began its decline. The coarse, heavy porcelain, often with crudely decorated designs, bore little resemblance to that of fine egg shell quality and detailed decoration.

New designs were introduced at the end of this period and during the early part of the 19th century. Among them was the so-called Fitzhugh design in blue, green, orange, brown, mulberry, gold, black, yellow and combinations of colors, and the Rose Medallion, design in which a piece is largely covered with large floral medallions in rose, greens, and blues. Other designs introduced at this time include the Mandarin, in which the floral medallions enclose Chinoiserie designs in colors similar to those of Rose Medallion, and a design of overall flowers, birds, and butterflies in shades of orange and brown which today is referred to as the Sacred Bird and Butterfly design.